Chapter 108: Striking at the Ming

On the eleventh day of the second month of the second year of Chongzhen, the third year of Tiancong of the Later Jin, night had fallen low over the Qingning Palace in Shenyang. Lamps blazed bright; several charcoal braziers burned in the room, making it as warm as spring. A few serving maids stood far to one side awaiting summons. The Later Jin Khan, Huang Taiji, sat behind his writing desk, calmly reading memorials. His face was sharply angular; his freshly shaved crown gleamed under the lamplight, and the small queue at the back of his head hung down over the left side of his chest. His left hand gently rubbed the thumb ring on his thumb, while his other hand turned the pages of the memorials.

This was his third year on the khan's throne. Through two years of fierce campaigning, the surrounding strategic situation had greatly improved compared to the time of the old khan. To the northwest, Lin Danhan had fled in panic. To the east, Dongjiang Zhen's decline was fully apparent. Joseon had signed a brotherly covenant and no longer dared to openly subsidize Dongjiang. Liaoxi, as ever, only defended and did not attack. The Later Jin's predicament of being beset on all sides had changed completely.

What worried him most was that, although the external situation had improved, the Later Jin's national strength remained weak. Both manpower and material resources were extremely scarce, leaving it without the capacity for sustained warfare. Even though its military strength surpassed that of the Ming army, it could not form a strategic advantage. The cause of this weakened national strength was the several large-scale massacres of Han people during the Nurhaci era.

In the sixth year of Tianming, when he first entered Liaodong, Nurhaci could not yet be considered utterly vicious; he still recognized some Liaodong people as free subjects. But in order to solve the Jurchen housing problem, he made them live in shared households with Han people. As a result, the original landlords, without any surprise, became the servants of their tenants, and even their wives and children were likewise enslaved. This caused the conflict between the Later Jin and the Han people to become sharply antagonistic at the very bottom. The people of Liaodong had always been fierce in character and were unwilling to endure the status of slaves; resistance and defections both grew intense.

That same year, to prevent Han people from defecting, Nurhaci forcibly relocated the Han people living along the borders and coasts, killing those who disobeyed. Moreover, he neither arranged food and lodging along the way, nor provided sufficient land and housing upon arrival, causing countless Liaodong people to die during the migration. Hatred continued to swell, and the resistance of the Liaodong people grew even fiercer.

By the ninth year of Tianming, Nurhaci seemed to have lost his mind. Faced with Han resistance, he had no solutions left and lost his last shred of patience. He issued nine consecutive orders to kill people without grain. Any Han person whose per capita grain ration fell below six or seven jin dou (later changed to four dou) was to be arrested and executed without exception. He declared, "I regard those without grain as enemies; among them, what friends have I?" — by then utterly devoid of any logical thought. Later it became even more direct; he dispensed with reasons altogether: "Divide into columns and go. Whenever you encounter a village or fort, dismount and slaughter."

After these several waves of devastation, more than half the Han people were already dead. The survivors lived in constant terror, and even more fled to Liaoxi or the Liaodong islands. Seeing that some still meant to resist stubbornly, Nurhaci then carried out another screening. This screening was even more lethal; even Jurchens who concealed people would be found guilty. When the screening was over, more than half the remaining Han people were dead again. Of all the licentiates and stipend students originally in Liaodong, only three hundred survived the screening — from this one can imagine the horror of the slaughter.

After these matters were settled, Nurhaci was still worried, so he organized the remaining Liaodong people into labor units and established villages, setting up one village for every thirteen able-bodied men, and gave them to officers of Beiyu rank and above as slaves. In Liaodong, there were almost no free Han people left, and the number of remaining Han people was less than one-tenth of the original five million Liaodong Han. Trade routes were blocked, all industries withered, goods were scarce, bandits swarmed, and especially grain prices soared. During the Tianming years, it had reached ten taels per shi. By the first year of Huang Taiji's Tiancong era, in Shenyang a dou of rice cost eight taels; corpses of starvation lay everywhere. Not only Han people, but even many Jurchens could not bear the heavy taxes and military service and fled to Mongolia or the Great Ming.

Such were the policies and actions of Nurhaci in Liaodong. Even setting aside his several massacres of cities, these were still appalling atrocities. The annals of history are drenched in blood and tears, yet there are still experts who read history and can summarize "ten great achievements." Comrade Nurhaci, if he knew in the underworld, could surely rest in peace.

Huang Taiji knew nothing of what would happen centuries later; he only had a headache over the mess before him. Since taking power, he had devoted himself to vigorous governance. Externally, he won repeated victories; internally, he improved the treatment of Han people and added Han "licentiates" to his study. He hoped to bring the Han people into the system as well, making them a source of strength for the Later Jin. Although the results were notable, the Eight Prince Deliberative Council system established by Nurhaci constrained him at every turn. Internal conflicts abounded; several beile were arrogant and unruly, and clashes occurred from time to time. He had to carefully employ political maneuvering, exploiting the conflicts among the various beile to achieve some of his own governance measures. His most important achievement was establishing, beneath the banner-lord beile, the eight banner gushan e'zhen and sixteen military commanders, taking the first step toward breaking up banner authority….

Afterward, through the two victories of attacking Joseon and defeating the Chahar, he strengthened his personal authority. Riding this momentum, just this past first month, he had used the titles of junior beile and the eight gushan assistants to hollow out the system whereby the four senior beile took turns managing state affairs by the month. But the overall situation of joint rule by the four senior beile still existed, so he still had to treat the other three senior beile with the deference due elder brothers. These three elder brothers — one conservative, one domineering, one brutish — were none of them easy to deal with. Their division of power forced him to postpone many of his ideas for governing the country.

Huang Taiji could not help rubbing his forehead with his hand. He himself understood that, given the Later Jin's current weakened state, it could no longer be improved from within; it could only gain replenishment from outside. Joseon's land was barren and produced very little — there was nothing to loot. Mongolia, apart from having more horses, was also a poor brother. His only way out was to plunder the Great Ming next door, or to negotiate peace and trade with the Great Ming.

Since he had succeeded to the khan's throne, Han officials had repeatedly advised peace negotiations, warning that otherwise trade routes would remain blocked, goods would be scarce, and the people would scatter and perish entirely. He had also made it one of his strategies. Just this past first month, he had sent a letter to Yuan Chonghuan, explaining the campaign against Joseon in the seventh year of Tianqi and expressing a desire for peace talks. But because of an issue with the seal, the other side had returned it. This Yuan Chonghuan was not someone he was dealing with for the first time. In the sixth year of Tianqi, Yuan Chonghuan had sent people to offer condolences for Nurhaci and congratulate the new khan on his accession, dispatching Lama Li and his party to Shenyang. From that time on, letters had been exchanged many times, all discussing peace talks. In his heart, he had never thought highly of Yuan Chonghuan; it was merely a matter of mutual exploitation. In one letter in the seventh year of Tianqi, he had bluntly rebuked Yuan Chonghuan: "Like a woman in her boudoir, merely speaking grandiose words…" (Note 1)

Peace negotiations could be pursued, but what he understood even more clearly was that peace talks were only a temporary measure. When a small state attacks a great state, how can one allow the other side room to recover?

After resting his eyes for a while, Huang Taiji picked up the next memorial. It was written by the Han official Gao Hong. Among the four senior beile, only Huang Taiji could read Chinese characters. He opened it and skimmed it roughly; immediately his eyes lit up. He sat up straight, leaning forward, and placed his left hand on the memorial as well.

"…I have no other stratagem. Strike directly at the capital. Assess the situation there, whether to attack or besiege, and then decide on a plan. If, because of the urgency of our attack and siege, he sends someone to sue for peace, that is suing for peace, not negotiating peace. We may grant him peace, but only on the terms that each side proclaims itself emperor, with the Yellow River as the border."

The memorial's suggestion of striking directly at the capital rather suited his original intent. Taking the Yellow River as the border, however, was a fool's dream. He picked up his brush and wrote on the memorial: "Urging me to advance the troops without delay — this is a most sound argument." He affirmed only his suggestion to advance; the peace terms he did not evaluate. After writing, he stood up and began studying a map.

Huang Taiji's finger moved from Shenyang, traveling all the way west, pausing for a moment at the Ning-Jin defense line in Liaoxi. The two characters for Ningyuan still pricked his eyes. The old khan and he had attacked it twice without success. In the sixth year of Tianqi, they had overrun many forts and stockades, and the spoils had been fairly plentiful. The Ning-Jin campaign had yielded far less, and those who had gone on the expedition had grumbled quite a bit.

Huang Taiji's finger continued westward, to the territory of the Kalaqin Mongols. Last year, riding on his defeat of the Chahar, he had already won over some of the Kalaqin Mongol tribes. The Subudi beyond the Jizhen passes had also submitted to the Later Jin last year, bringing his own scouts to survey the local terrain along the line from Xifengkou to Lengkou, and had been reporting back to him one after another.

Then Huang Taiji's hand stopped on Xifengkou and tapped it lightly.

Finally, he looked toward the mouth of the Yalu River, at the place marked with the three characters Dongjiang Zhen. Huang Taiji's gaze turned cold and sinister. This Dongjiang Zhen, like a bone-deep ulcer — it was a pity that the last surprise attack on Zhenjiang had failed to intercept and kill that man. Whenever the Later Jin sent troops on a distant campaign, he would come out to plunder. By the time the main Later Jin force hurried back, he would immediately pull his head back in. The peace envoys sent to him had also been delivered by him to Jingshi. Although Dongjiang Zhen had been severely damaged in the seventh year of Tianqi, its bad habits remained unchanged; it still came out from time to time to forcibly beg for alms. With this man present, he could never feel at ease launching a distant expedition.

Huang Taiji squeezed out a single phrase through clenched teeth: "Mao Wenlong!"…

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"Has the ice begun to thaw over on Mao Wenlong's side?" Chen Xin stood on the dock at Mazi Harbor, gazing out at the broad Liaodong Sea and talking to himself. Standing beside him were Ba Zi and Qin Lufang.

Ba Zi heard him and said, "My lord, over on Pi Island they reckon it won't thaw until the third month. Mr. Song has nearly finished buying the goods. Tomorrow the Fujian junk will head to Tianjin, and in the third month we'll set out to sea."

Chen Xin nodded and said, "Go as quickly as you can and return as quickly as you can. Pick a few sailors to stay behind; I need them to handle those cargo ships."

Ba Zi glanced at the three cargo ships moored in the harbor, also of the small Fujian junk style, though perhaps a bit inferior for sailing to Japan. These three had just been bought from Dengzhou this second month. Ever since Yuan Chonghuan had banned merchant ships from trading with Dongjiang Zhen, many ship merchants in Dengzhou worried that business would be hard to do; some with less patience had begun selling their vessels. Song Wenxian had taken this opportunity to buy several, sailors included. But all the sailors had been told that Liu Minyou had bought them, and Liu Minyou's identity had become that of a merchant. After all, Chen Xin still did not dare to openly defy orders.

Chen Xin had bought some grain from Dengzhou and had it carried back on these three ships, just waiting for the Liaodong sea islands to thaw so he could ship grain to Pi Island and trade for people. He planned to buy at least three hundred people. These people harbored a hatred for the Later Jin as deep as the sea. Compared to those recruited here in Shandong, they would possess a stronger will to fight. Through interacting with them, he could also make his current soldiers understand the brutality of the Later Jin — a kind of subtle, gradual propaganda.

And the most important point was that the disintegration of Dongjiang was not far off. Having these several hundred people would allow him to better absorb Dongjiang's strength in the future. Judging by the later performance of the Three Compliant Kings, the combat effectiveness of the Dongjiang army far surpassed that of ordinary Ming troops.

Chen Xin said to Ba Zi, "This time I'm not going to Japan. You and Mr. Song will go. I have other uses for Qin Lufang."

Ba Zi was slightly surprised, but did not dare to ask anything. The naval force he led was lax in discipline; he had seen the foot soldiers deploy several times, and the difference was like heaven and earth. So he was extremely cautious in front of Chen Xin.

After giving him a few more instructions, Chen Xin took Qin Lufang back to his office. Qin Lufang closed the door behind him. Chen Xin himself lifted the kettle and poured him a cup of tea — this was his habit: in his own office, he personally poured tea for his subordinates, as a gesture of respect.

Qin Lufang accepted the teacup with both hands, then sat down behind the desk.

"Lufang, have the people been placed beside Ba Zi?"

Qin Lufang said in a low voice, "They're in place. He reports back that Ba Zi has no other intentions. It's just that military merits all go to the combat troops. Last time he hitched a ride and was promoted to Squad Leader, but he feels the promotion was a bit small."

Chen Xin smiled. Greed for rank was not really a flaw, as long as there were no other ill intentions. In any case, Ba Zi's family dependents were all being watched in Weihai; he wasn't afraid of him overturning the heavens. This time Chen Xin himself was not going to Japan. After all, his entire fortune was on those two ships. Having schemed against others so much, he was always worried others would scheme against him, so during the New Year period he had planted several informants in the naval force.

"Then set aside Ba Zi's matter for now. When you reach Tianjin, tell Mr. Song about the man beside Ba Zi, and have him keep a slight eye out along the way. Don't tell him about the other informants."

Qin Lufang had also faced life and death at sea and had been tempered for over a year now; he had become much more capable and efficient. He agreed crisply.

Chen Xin continued, "After you go to Tianjin this time, you won't be coming back for a while. I have a major task for you."

Qin Lufang stood up and said, "Please give your orders, my lord."

"You will go to several places and open shops. Clothing shops will do. Whether they make money or not doesn't matter. It's best to open them all in locations outside the cities. Rent large premises, buy some grain and store it inside. For the hired hands and laborers, choose from among those farming households — men with families."

"Which places?"

Chen Xin led him over to a rough map and pointed: "The first is Zunhua. Here, only open a shop, don't store grain. The second…"

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Note 1: From the Manchu Old Archives, Tiancong Year 1, Fourth Month file: A letter sent regarding the construction of Jinzhou city: "The Khan sends a letter to Lord Yuan: The reply has been written in full… Since ancient times, it has always been because of you civil officials — like a scholar in his boudoir, merely fond of wild talk — that troops have been lost and generals defeated, the people cruelly harmed, and imperial enterprises destroyed. Because former officials were unprincipled, the lands east and west of the river were lost, soldiers and generals were slaughtered — and still this is not enough warning, yet you still wish to speak of war?"