Chapter 381: A Great Industry

"It's turning, it's turning."

By the Baolong River in Wendeng, cheers erupted around a water channel diverted from the river. A water-powered machine was creaking and rattling, with dozens of spindles spinning on it. Some students held cotton slivers in one hand while drawing and twisting the fibers with the other, turning them into fine, even yarn. As the dozens of spindles rotated, the yarn twisted along with them and then wound onto the bobbins.

Liu Minyou walked around the waterwheel, feeling rather excited. This large hydraulic spinning frame was an experimental project he had assigned to the mechanics class at the Wendeng Grand Academy, with a very high reward attached, and only now had preliminary results emerged.

Liu Minyou had thought for a long time about what main product to develop. He needed several essential conditions: first, it had to be labor-intensive and capable of solving employment for a large population; second, it needed sufficient sales volume; third, raw materials had to be abundant. He had arranged for the trading company to conduct some investigations, and the cotton spinning industry happened to meet his requirements. If the cotton spinning industry could be developed, besides spinning and weaving itself, a large number of upstream and downstream industries could also grow — such as machinery, dyeing, garment-making, and transport — which would in turn drive other consumer sectors on an even larger scale.

China's cotton spinning industry was already quite developed in the Song Dynasty. Cotton was first introduced in Fujian and Guangdong, but later the cotton varieties in the Jiangnan region produced higher yields. The shrub-type cotton plants of Fujian and Guangdong could not compete with Jiangnan's annual cotton, so the cash crops of Min and Guang shifted toward sugarcane products. Cotton cultivation reached its peak, with planting all across the country, even in the northernmost areas like Liaodong, rapidly displacing hemp clothing materials. Hemp fabric became a specialty product of only a few localized areas, and the Jiangnan region became the center of cotton spinning.

The cotton spinning industry was more suited to household production than the silk industry. The spinning wheels and looms used were very simple, and single-spindle spinning wheels could be operated by both young and old. Usually one farming household could weave one bolt a day, and the next day they would take it to sell. They would exchange it for more cotton and continue weaving, with very quick capital turnover. It was most suitable for family workshops, which was why it developed rapidly in Jiangnan. The market for cotton cloth targeted ordinary commoners, with enormous sales volume, and the craftsmanship requirements were not high — there was no need for fancy patterns or designs — so it was also very suitable for large-scale production.

In comparison, the silk industry was very complex. According to Liu Minyou's thinking, the silk industry was convenient for export and could also be developed, but after investigation he found that silk machinery and processes were both very complicated. Although the unit price was high, sales volume was far less than cotton cloth. As a luxury good, silk had many unique demands, which led to a great variety of product types and complex production techniques. Its production required processes such as silk reeling, silk winding, weft preparation, warp drawing, heddle tying, silk beating, thread joining, and pattern weaving — each process requiring specialized personnel to complete. For Denglai, training these specialists would require a great deal of time and effort, and more importantly, Shandong had no advantage whatsoever in raw materials. Engaging in dumping might not necessarily beat Jiangnan.

On the other hand, cotton clothing had by this time already replaced hemp products and become the most commonly used clothing among commoners. Moreover, it was a freely competitive industry, unlike the salt industry, which had a complex monopoly system. With Dengzhou's current strength, it would be difficult to break through the entanglements of local interests everywhere.

So Liu Minyou abandoned the silk weaving industry and placed the focus on the cotton spinning and weaving industry. At present, the cotton spinning industry was concentrated in South Zhili and Zhejiang. In the late Ming period, the north had invented underground-cellar spinning and weaving, which formed some competition against southern goods and occupied the low-end goods market, but the supporting dyeing and commerce industries were not as good as Jiangnan's. Every year, large quantities of Henan and Shandong cotton still traveled south; after being processed in Jiangnan, these goods were then sold back to various regions.

The vast market and Shandong's raw material production base made him resolve to take this path. From historical experience, the cotton spinning industry was also an important commodity capable of driving the Industrial Revolution. Denglai naturally possessed a huge sales market, at least without tariffs or legal trade barriers to break through.

Before the Opium War, China produced six hundred million bolts of cotton cloth annually, six times the amount of cotton cloth exported by the British. Although the Ming Dynasty's population was not as large as that of the late Qing, the market capacity was still very considerable. Liu Minyou believed this driving force could bring about transformations in the economy, technology, and management. So Liu Minyou, together with the Bureau of Industry and Commerce, made a plan to develop the cotton spinning and weaving industry in Denglai, combining water power and human labor. They would not engage in single-household workshops; from the very start, they would adopt intensive production like the other Denglai workshops, beating Jiangnan on cost.

Liu Minyou hoped to accelerate this process through intensive production and technological innovation. Technological innovation meant using new types of machines; besides hydraulic spinning frames, there would also be human-powered spinning wheels to solve the employment of a large population.

The machines the trading company purchased from various places were all handed over to the mechanics department by Liu Minyou, including some agricultural treatises. For example, Wang Zhen's Agricultural Treatise contained human- and animal-powered multi-spindle spinning frames that could spin one hundred jin of hemp per day and night, and the most advanced water-powered large spinning frame had as many as thirty-two spindles. He concluded that such multi-spindle spinning machinery had existed since the Song Dynasty.

The trading company had purchased quite a few types of spinning wheels from various places. Among the commonly used cotton spinning wheels, they were generally foot-powered. Compared to the Western hand-cranked single-spindle spinning wheel, the foot-powered type freed both hands. In the Ming Dynasty, most Chinese spinning frame spindles were three- or four-spindle types, which were also world-leading in this era.

Compared to Britain before the Industrial Revolution, their spinning technology was not even up to China's thirteenth-century level, because they did not even have the concept of multiple spindles. It was not until the invention of the Spinning Jenny in 1764 that multi-spindle spinning machinery appeared, and the water-powered spinning machine had to wait until 1769 — a full four hundred-plus years later than China's water-powered spinning machines.

What puzzled Liu Minyou in the trading company's investigation results was that water-powered spinning frames used for hemp spinning had existed since the Song Dynasty, but up until the late Ming, there had never been a water-powered spinning machine used for cotton spinning. At this time, Jiangnan and other places also had water-powered spinning frames, but they were still only used for weaving hemp, with no water-powered machinery whatsoever used for cotton.

He specifically set up this project in the Industrial Research Office under the Bureau of Industry and Commerce, and then drew many students from the mechanics department of the Wendeng Grand Academy to participate. The prize money was very high, and the young people in the research office and mechanics department were full of drive. They divided into three groups to separately research human-powered spinning, water-powered spinning, and weaving.

With the accumulated experience from the previous workshops, science and technology classes, and vocational schools, there were many people with a spirit of dedicated research, and no shortage of skilled craftsmen. The research progressed very quickly. Liu Minyou had come today specifically to inspect the project, accompanied by Zhou Laifu, the general manager of the trading company.

Seeing that cotton yarn had been produced, Zhou Laifu was also all smiles. Having long worked in the trading company, he was very clear about the cotton cloth market. Generally speaking, weaving was faster than spinning, and often the looms were waiting for the spinning wheels. Water power reduced the amount of labor required, and the number of spindles was more than ten times that of human power, so Denglai's prices would be much lower than Jiangnan's. The only concern was that the water source might be insufficient.

Zhou Laifu watched the students drawing the cotton slivers and asked Liu Minyou, "My lord Liu, this water-powered spinning machine is indeed good, but as for these cotton slivers — if they still require human labor to draw, then in practice it doesn't really save on manpower, at most it saves some effort."

Liu Minyou was not yet very clear on these specific details. He turned to look at the person in charge of the water-powered loom — it was Guan Xiaodi, whom he knew well. This lad was only seventeen or eighteen years old, but since coming out of the mechanics class he had already worked on multiple machinery projects, performing excellently each time. At such a young age, he had become a technical supervisor in the workshop and also taught part-time at the Wendeng Grand Academy.

Guan Xiaodi, with a touch of pride amid his deference, said to the two men, "My lords, drawing yarn from the cotton sliver is the most critical aspect that distinguishes cotton spinning from silk and hemp textiles. We have studied the looms of Jiangnan together. Their spindles are generally three or four, because the spinner holds the cotton sliver in one hand and draws the yarn with the other — at most four strands between the five fingers — therefore the spindles cannot exceed four."

Neither Liu Minyou nor Zhou Laifu understood these matters, and they listened attentively to Guan Xiaodi's explanation. Judging by Guan Xiaodi's expression, he seemed to have a preliminary plan to solve it.

Guan Xiaodi continued, "The difficulty with silk lies in reeling and combining the threads; by the time it comes to spinning the silk, it is already relatively easy. Hemp is also long; the difficulty lies in twisting rather than in spinning, which is why multi-spindle spinning frames are suitable. Cotton single fibers are very short and also tangled with each other. Before spinning, they can only be twisted into long, thin cotton slivers. Both hands must spin and draw simultaneously, and the cotton sliver must be held between the fingers. To increase the number of spindles, one must work on the drawing of the cotton sliver. Your subordinate discovered an object on a Jiangnan spinning frame — a wooden bar that can carry five spindles (Note: Tiangong Kaiwu, Spinning Illustration 2). From this, I thought of a method: using two long wooden bars as substitutes for two hands, operated by two people. Three or four people can then manage forty to sixty spindles. We are currently testing it on the human-powered spinning frame, and once it is stable, we will apply it to the water-powered spinning frame."

The director of the Industrial Research Office said to Liu Minyou and Zhou Laifu, "Guan Xiaodi is indeed clever. Although this double-layered wooden bar looks simple, whether considering water power or human power, it is truly the key to the cotton spinning machine. At present, it appears quite feasible. I intend to designate Guan Xiaodi as having rendered the primary merit and award him the first-class prize."

After listening, Zhou Laifu asked, "What is the maximum number of spindles that human power and water power can drive?"

The director said, "For human power, we are currently experimenting with eight and twelve spindles; later we will experiment with twenty-four spindles. Water power can reach sixty spindles."

Zhou Laifu silently calculated for a moment after hearing this, then said to Liu Minyou in a low voice, "At present, the most cotton yarn comes from Songjiang. Their medium-grade product generally sells for about one qian and five or six fen of silver per bolt (Note: Yueshi Bian), of which the cotton cost is about one qian and one or two fen, with a gross profit of roughly twenty percent. Shipped to the north, the selling price is three qian of silver per bolt. If our Denglai can produce the same goods, we already have the geographical advantage. Shipping by sea to Tianjin and Ningyuan is also much cheaper than via the Grand Canal. The detailed division of labor in our workshops far surpasses those small households, giving us the advantage of harmonious human relations. Now with this spinning machine, to earn the same amount of silver, our price will not exceed two qian and two or three fen, and we can quickly outcompete the southern goods in the north."

Liu Minyou, thinking of this enormous industry, also felt some excitement. He said to Zhou Laifu, "My thoughts are much the same as Laifu's. The first step of the plan is to first topple the family workshops in Shandong and seize the Shandong cotton cloth market, then the northern market, and finally compete with the southern goods. Once the cotton spinning and weaving industry is established, in the future we will also do wool spinning and weaving, and then we can have reciprocal trade with the Mongols."

Many thoughts immediately flashed through Zhou Laifu's mind. As long as Liu Minyou decided to invest, this industry would certainly make money — the only question was in which segment to make it. He immediately said to Liu Minyou, "My lord, your subordinate has an immodest request. Clothing, food, shelter, and transport are daily necessities. The usage of cotton cloth is enormous, and the usage of cotton is also enormous. Your subordinate recalls the Dongyue Cigarette Factory that Assistant Regional Commander Manager Erya set up in Linqing — its sales have greatly increased this year, which shows the effectiveness of unified industry and commerce. Eastern Depot and Linqing are the distribution centers for Shandong cotton. In the future, this cloth-weaving factory could also set up a branch in Eastern Depot, which would further lower costs. Ultimately, it will have to be handled through the trading company, so your subordinate was thinking…"

Liu Minyou said calmly, "Speak, Laifu."

"Could the spinning and weaving factory be placed under the trading company?"

Liu Minyou was silent for a moment, then said, "Let me think about this matter."

Zhou Laifu shut his mouth at the appropriate moment. His status in Dengzhou had risen imperceptibly, and even he had only recently become aware of this. After last year's dividends were distributed, his dealings with any government office went extremely smoothly. Those high-ranking military officers were also polite and courteous when they saw him. Even troublemakers like Zhou Shifa and Zhang Dong respectfully called him Grand Manager. In everything the trading company needed to do — intelligence, foreign affairs, military matters — all vied to contribute their efforts.

So as soon as Zhou Laifu discovered the prospects of spinning and weaving, he instinctively sought to secure benefits for the trading company. But he understood Liu Minyou very well as a person; pushing too hard might instead result in getting nothing.

"Let's go. We still need to look at the loom. Having yarn alone is not enough; the loom is also very important." Liu Minyou led the way in that direction.

The director of the research office said, "My lord, the progress on the loom is somewhat slower. They don't know how to make that flying shuttle you mentioned. That group has tried many methods, but none have met your requirements. They all say they want to ask Lord Liu…"

"I don't know." Liu Minyou said bluntly. "I only heard someone mention it once, saying that this flying shuttle can automatically move back and forth without people tossing it back and forth. I only set this requirement; don't ask me about anything else."

"This…" The director was somewhat helpless. The loom had made no major progress, and he was also very troubled by it.

"My lord, your subordinate has some ideas about the flying shuttle. May I go take a look with my lord?" Liu Minyou and the others turned to look — it was Guan Xiaodi. The director glared at him. In the previous several meetings, they had solicited opinions from all group members and even posted a one-hundred-tael idea reward, but this Guan Xiaodi hadn't let out a single fart. Now that Liu Minyou was here, he suddenly had an idea.

"Of course." Liu Minyou paid no heed to these undercurrents and immediately agreed, leading Guan Xiaodi along. He thought highly of this young man and was very warm toward him on the way, casually making small talk with Guan Xiaodi. Hearing that Guan Xiaodi was not yet married, he couldn't help patting him on the shoulder and joking, "Xiaodi, your future is boundless. In the workshop and the grand academy, you will surely take on more responsibilities. There must be many families who have their eyes on you. I wonder, are you planning to choose a heavenly fairy for a wife?"

Guan Xiaodi blushed and said, "Your subordinate is in the workshop and school every day and usually not at home, so no one has come to propose a match."

Zhou Laifu sized up Guan Xiaodi for a moment, then looked at Liu Minyou. Suddenly he leaned close to Liu Minyou's ear and said, "A young talent like Guan Xiaodi, and still unmarried? My eldest daughter happens to be unbetrothed as well. Could Lord Liu help mediate this later…" (To be continued…)

PS: Requesting monthly tickets.